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Manx: Reviving the Reconstruction of the Reform
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Featured November 2 , 2008
Questioning the validity of whether a language truly dies.
The inimitable history of the Isle of Man not only includes a constant change in leadership, a history rich with outspoken individuals and a legal system like no other, it has a unique language. Due to its geographic position in the Irish Sea and the British Reformation the Isle’s language – Manx – finds itself on the endangered list. Its embers; however, are being given gusts of life and, like its counterparts in other Celtic countries, there is renewed interest in ensuring its survival. Ironically, its salvation comes from the Reformers who sought to destroy it along with the remote locations where many of the native population lived.
A member of Goidelic group of Celtic languages that are themselves members of the Indo-European cluster of languages, Manx broke from Old Irish when Vikings stopped ravaging Mann and settled on the Island in the 9th century (Olsen). The Celtic and Viking cultures blended to create a new society independent of what was occurring in other parts of present day British Isles and Ireland. The impact of Norse society is still in effect as the Manx government proclaims that they are, “The world’s oldest continuous parliament”. They still meet annually on 5 July to read out their laws publicly at Tynwald Hill, a known Viking site of importance. However, Norse occupation lasted only until 1266 when Norway ceded Mann along with other island holdings to Scotland in the Treaty of Perth (Donaldson 34-36). For the next sixty-seven years, the Isle was in a constant state flux as Scotland and England fought over it, groups from Ireland raided it, and it received a Norwegian claim for the throne (Kinvig 87). Although there was concern for the country’s future, the language itself did not suffer much deterioration. However, once the English government created a lordship for the Isle in 1333, and the Stanley family’s assumption of the position in 1405 (Kinvig 9), the language started what is considered a slow decline. The effects of English dominance on the language were not immediately felt as the Stanley head of the family, known as the Earl of Derby, was an absentee lord. He sent soldiers from England to protect his holdings but they either remained distant from the Manx population or assimilated themselves within it; David Craine states, “But the imported soldiers soon formed connections by marriage, acquired land, and in the end, became more Manx than the Manx.” (42). An active effort to eradicate Manx from the Isle did not occur until sometime between 1642 and 1651, during the English Civil War; however, there is evidence that by the mid 17th century, both languages were in use. William Christian, also known as Illiam Dhone, took advantage of his appointment of the head of the militia by the seventh Earl of Derby by taking the forts while the latter was away fighting for the King Charles’ Royalists. The militia was partly successful under Christian’s leadership, but the Parliamentarians, from England, took the larger castles. Popular opinion at the time was that Christian asked the Parliamentarians for assistance; however, since the Earl’s sympathies lay with the King, an invitation was unnecessary. Ultimately, the reason why the Parliamentarians arrived when they did is no longer available to us, but there still exist letters of correspondence between Christian and Governor James Chaloner, in English (Coakley). That the Earl gave him a position of importance prior to leaving the Isle suggests that English was familiar to Christian, but we also know that he was raised the son of a deemster – judge – a position his brother later took up. It was not until 1819 that the first non-Manx speaking deemster took office (Pilgrim). As previously noted, Christian possessed a Manx nickname and someone wrote a ballad in Manx called “Baase Illiam Dhone” about his actions and execution. The oldest available document in Manx is Bishop Phillips’ translation of the “Book of Common Prayer” from around 1610; however, it survives in a manuscript dating from c. 1630 (Thomson). This translation was not widely used nor did it influence the population, but it did provide the foundation for modern day Manx. Although the book was not published until 1894 the spelling, distinctly different from its sister languages, Irish and Scottish Gaelic, is blamed on the Bishop’s choices in spelling, which were probably influenced by his native Welsh. In 1707, another Bishop, Thomas Wilson, had his “Principles and Duties of Christianity” translated and printed for use in converting the native islanders. Although, popular opinion dictated that there should be mass paranoia regarding the Manx language, and traditions seen as a threat to the Crown, Wilson felt that it was important to enlighten those still using Christian Celtic ways through Protestant morality. He also knew that the older population of Mann could not read nor did they understand English. In order to affect the desired religious changes he established new ecclesiastical laws, including that all children attend school until they could read English (Kinvig 112); therefore, children were learning scripture in English, and could read the Manx side of the bible to their elders. Further evidence of this continues to appear for nearly another two hundred years as is seen in A Sketch of Manx Gaelic, “It was reported in 1764 by the S.P.C.K. that the majority of the inhabitants were ignorant of English, hence the necessity for the Bible translation made into Manx at that time.” (Pilgrim). The Reverend John Kelly also makes note of it in 1859, “Though [the editor] is not prepared to recommend the study of Manx…he would yet strongly impress upon those whose sphere of duty it lies, or is to lie, among the peasantry, the importance of possessing a knowledge of the tongue with which the country people are most conversant…”(ix) Another strategy used to Anglicize the native population was to have a layman clerk read out the daily psalm as the congregation sang it (Craine 106). Not all clergy appreciated this practice, and surprisingly, Bishop Wilson’s replacement, Bishop Hildesley, even expressed his surprise at the how the Manx population was willing to forgo their own tongue, yet in contrast to this some parishes complained if the Vicar did not provide Manx sermons or visitation to the elderly and sick (Craine 114-116). Keeping Manxmen morality in check was of great importance also because of prolific smuggling around the Isle. In 1689, the English government imposed heavy tariffs on goods imported to Mann as well as refusing to allow merchant ships built by or manned by other countries from entering English ports. Tariffs on the Isle of Man were not significant and merchants from European seafaring nations were welcome to trade with the Manxmen who in turn loaded smaller ships and set off to sell the newly acquired goods in England and Scotland. Manxmen specially built ships that were quick, and able to moor in small inlets during low tides in order to avoid the revenue cutters. Although tariffs eventually rose and laws implemented as attempts to curb the practice, officials did not seriously police them as the lord and his agencies reaped the profits, not to mention benefited from inexpensive quality goods (Kinvig 120-122). With the sea surrounding the island, it is not difficult to imagine that Mann was not exclusively a smuggler’s paradise. Herring is abundant in the Irish Sea and the Isle of Man and it is widely accepted that they smoke the best kippers in the world. Although herring are not fished any longer by Manx boats, this was not the case in the late 16th and early 17th centuries when they, along with fishing, some Manxmen worked for local and foreign merchants and others as excise men. A common language was required between the seafarers in the Irish Sea and at the time, as the English monarchical government ruled all five countries. The establishment of English-centric governance provided a common language between all the countries as well as those trading within them. In the case of the Mann, fishermen, smugglers and merchant sailors typically came from the most remote areas on the Isle. Despite some churches offering English services alongside Manx; the isolated areas were not greatly exposed to it, and were likely to resort to Manx once the ceremony was complete. It was not until the mid-nineteenth century when the fishermen arrived home, speaking English to the members of their villagers that the secluded population began to allow Manx to slip behind its usurper. It is quite easy to blame the increased use of English as the sole reason for the perishing language, but there was another monster in the shadows and when it showed itself it silenced Gaelic tongues as quickly as Medusa turned those who saw her to stone. Unlike its counterparts Ireland, Scotland, and Wales, very few people within Mann’s borders dug in their heels to secure language’s future. The schools were teaching only in English, the reading out of laws at Tynwald were in both languages, there was a steep decline in Manx church services, and a circulation of the notion that admitting that one not only understood but spoke the native language was cause for embarrassment. This pessimistic view was successful because of the Church, the nobility, the government, and the economy. Through the diminution of Manx services and the creation of English only grammar schools, the hiring of Englishmen or English speaking Manxmen rather than native speakers within the army, through English law readings, and the outlawing of Manx in schools (Killop n. pag), the populace could do nothing but believe that their language was irrelevant. George Broderick offers a model with seven elements that caused the demise of Manx and in this, he quotes a well-worn idiom, “you will not earn a penny with the Manx” (169) suggesting that skill had less to do with one’s chances in gaining employment than one’s speech. A spiritual and psychological attack against a specific characteristic within a social group clearly has the ability to create disorder and produces a sense of inferiority amongst its members. Although the number of people speaking Manx diminished in the 17th and 18th centuries, a rapid decline began in the mid-eighteenth century. Children were no longer taught Manx in schools nor did they hear it at home, as parents did not want them to miss any opportunities should the children be caught understanding the language. However, parents had an additional reason for not speaking Manx in front of the children. When they did not want their offspring, or anyone else for that matter, to understand a particular discussion, they spoke in Manx rather than adjourning to a private room (Broderick 170). The seafarers also employed this tactic when they wished to keep illicit behaviour secret or complained about life at sea. Unfortunately, Scots and Irishmen understood the language well enough that any untoward behaviour was dealt with swiftly. There are cases when Manxmen underpaid by the traders, would fight over the lack of remuneration as well as their use of Manx (Craine 32). This esoteric use of Manx along with the fear that descendents would suffer if they possessed knowledge of it ensured the loss of traditional tales and songs. Proverbs and idioms would also experience demise, though not in their entirety, as some were similar to sister languages or were translated, perhaps allowing for the language’s reconstruction. The question one should pose is whether Manx needs reconstructing. Most linguists seem to agree that spoken Manx is in a dire state, therefore in need in some recreation. A reconstruction is; however, only required for parts of the language, as there are many recordings of the last native speakers. Conversely, in its written form, while imperfect, is in a better position as there are manuscripts and texts available. Unlike other languages where there are only texts, the use of all these elements along with current knowledge of Scottish and Irish Gaelic places Manx in a unique position for resuscitation. In 1899, a group of native speakers founded the Manx Language Society as a reaction to a survey that measured the use of Manx to be minimal. Although created to keep the language alive, it was not lost on its members that this would also be an opportunity to collect other cultural goods (Coakley). For those who supported the idea of a centre for the study of all things Manx, it became a Nationalistic movement; alternatively, it became a cause of disagreement for those opposing the revival. The Society was fortuitous in its membership as there were several collectors among them. A collector of folklore named Karl Roeder contributed a significant amount of what is available today. Although he lived in England, he maintained correspondence with many native speakers and some of those letters are available along with additional correspondences between his friends and others (Miller). Much of the correspondence is not in Manx, however, the tales are. Some submitted items were from as far away as California. As the native speakers died, enthusiasm for the Society waned until a German interest in all things Celtic surfaced. Carl J.S. Marstrander made several trips to the Isle of Man, initially to find native speakers and eventually to record them. Recordings collected by several groups until late 1960’s is the foundation used to determine inflections, aspirations and other technicalities of language. The individuals recorded had all learned Manx as children but had not kept it up, nor had they taught the language to their own children. They also all noted that, as adults they rarely spoke Manx unless it was required, but all indicated regret in not using it more. The last living native speaker, Ned Maddrell stated in a Manx National Heritage survey, “I am sorry that so many people of my age and older have been ashamed of being supposed to know Manx” (Skeealyn Vannin – Stories of Mann 13). The recordings are primarily in Manx with English words used to fill in forgotten in their native tongue. Broderick observed that idioms are incomplete in some instances or combined with others (155). The resources for the spelling and grammar of Manx were initially set down in Phillips’ “A Book of Common Prayer” which was considered by translators of later texts to be incorrect. Subsequently, there are Wilson’s translated texts, and beginning in 1901, surveys to determine widespread use of the language on the isle were conducted every ten years until there were a significant increase in the number of speakers to render the survey results irrelevant after the 1971 survey (note: no survey was conducted in 1941 due to the Second World War). As Robert L. Thomson indicates in his essay “Edward Lhuyd’s Geirieu Manaweg II”, one must be discriminating when using the older sources as they themselves are not without errors. Although there is a considerable amount of written Manx, there is very little that escaped English or Welsh influence. The language may sound very similar to Scottish Gaelic, but its spelling is highly Anglicized, particularly with its use of letters that are not included in the other Goidelic languages, the loss of lenition and accents, along with unusual vowel combinations. There have been several grammar books written since the late 18th century, some are no longer in use as they were not accurate, or they were not sufficient for modern use. However, some are still available along with modern exercise books through The Manx Gaelic Society, formerly known as the Manx Language Society. It is unlikely that the Reverend Phillips and the Bishop Wilson ever imagined that their attempts to convert the population to English Protestantism using translated religious texts would be the eventual salvation of the language they aimed to quash. It probably did not occur to Mr. Marstrander or the people of Mann that in less than a decade after the last of his recordings that the Nazis were interested in Mann’s political take on imperial control and to promote anti-British sentiment through a Celtic movement (Broderick 178). It would probably be most shocking to those who lived a century ago that the language they abandoned is gaining some footing not only on the Isle but also in other parts of the world, including North America and Australia. Furthermore, the only country that teaches Manx at post secondary level is in England, the country that demanded the language’s suppression. One might even propose that Manx has not truly met its death but that a merciful plucking of an extinguishing last ember from the ashes simply needs a small wind of life to reignite it. Another analogy is Medieval Latin’s return from the abyss of the Middle Ages, that not only is it not dead, but it is still used to teach certain vocations (Pilgrim). Granted that Manx does not have an unlimited supply of resources to draw from in order to rebuild it; however, Latin did not have recordings of people speaking the language and yet we are certain of its inflections, its accenting and its grammar. The number of Manx speakers increased in the late 20th century and continued interest in the language as well as the culture has helped to have the language officially recognized once again on the Isle of Man. The language is once again offered in some primary schools and there is a return of Manx Church services in some counties. Unfortunately, there is still opposition to the use and teaching of the language; many still consider it backward and embarrassing. The Manx government encourages interest through their support of the Manx National Heritage and the Manx Gaelic Society; however, their tourist brochure makes no mention of it (Department of Tourism and Leisure). Perhaps they are not entirely certain of the language’s future after all. References: Broderick, George. Language Death in the Isle of Man. Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag, 1999. Coakley, F. ManxNoteBook. 1999. 1 April 2008 Department of Tourism and Leisure. Set Yourself Free. N.p.: Lily Publications Ltd, 2008 Craine, David. Manannan’s Isle. N.p.: The Manx Museum and National Trust, 1956. Donaldson, Gordon. Scottish Historical Documents. Glasgow: Neil Wilson, 1999. Isle of Man Government Reiltys Ellan Vannin. 2008. Tynwald. 30 March 2008 Kelly, John Rev. The Manx Society, A Practicle Grammar of the Ancient Gaelic, or Language of The Isle of Man, Usually Called Manks. Douglas: Manx Society, 1859 Killop, Christopher. Isle of Man - A Book About the Manx. London:Arts Council of Great Britain, 1980. Kinvig, R.H. The Isle of Man. Rutland, Vermont: Charles E. Tuttle Co., 1975 Miller, Stephen. Manxnotes. 2008. 30 March 2008 Olsen, Brigitta. “Vikings in the Isle of Man.” Scandinavica.com Mar. 2005. 30 March 2008 Thomson, Robert L. “An Outline of Manx Literature.” Gaelg 2004 16 March 2008 ---. “Edward Lhuyd’s ‘Geirieu Manaweg’II.” Celtica. 23 (1999):390-407 |
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